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J. Semicond. > 2020, Volume 41?>?Issue 5?> 051204

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Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging

Yirong Su^?, Wenbo Ma^? and Yang (Michael) Yang

+ Author Affiliations + Find other works by these authors

• State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, ChinaState Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
• ? Those authors contribute equally to this work? Those authors contribute equally to this work

Author Bio:

• Yirong Su ? These authors contributed equally to this work.
• Wenbo Ma ? Those authors contribute equally to this work.

• Yirong Su
• Wenbo Ma
• Yang (Michael) Yang

 Corresponding author: Yang (Michael) Yang, yangyang15@zju.edu.cn

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204

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Abstract: Halide perovskites have emerged as the next generation of optoelectronic materials and their remarkable performances have been attractive in the fields of solar cells, light-emitting diodes, photodetectors, etc. In addition, halide perovskites have been reported as an attractive new class of X-ray direct detecting materials recently, owning to the strong X-ray stopping capacity, excellent carrier transport, high sensitivity, and cost-effective manufacturing. Meanwhile, perovskite based direct X-ray imagers have been successfully demonstrated as well. In this review article, we firstly introduced some fundamental principles of direct X-ray detection and imaging, and summarized the advances of perovskite materials for these purposes and finally put forward some needful and feasible directions.

Key words: halide perovskites, X-ray detection, optoelectronic materials

References

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Fig. 1.  (Color online) (a) Spectrum region of X-ray to wavelength and photon energy. (b) Thomson scattering from an atom. An X-ray with a wave vector k scatters from an atom to the direction specified by k’. The scattering is assumed to be elastic. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [6]. (c) Compton scattering. A photon with energy $ {\varepsilon}=\hbar ck $ and momentum $\hbar {k}$ scatters from an electron at rest with energy mc². The electron recoils with a momentum $\hbar {q'} = \hbar \left( {{k} - {k'}} \right)$. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [6]. (d) Schematic diagram of photoelectric absorption process. An X-ray photon is absorbed and an electron ejected from the atom. The hole created in the inner shell (k) can be filled by Fluorescent X-ray emission. Electrons in an outer shell fill the hole, creating a photon. In this diagram the outer electron comes either from the L or M shell. In the former case the fluorescent radiation is referred to as the K_α line, and in the latter as K_β line.

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Fig. 2.  (Color online) (a) Working Principle of ion chamber. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]. (b) Semiconductor X-ray detectors’ two types of work modes: current mode and voltage mode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23]. (c) The linear absorption coefficients of different kinds of perovskite and conventional X-ray detectors. (d) Images of a piece of MAPbI₃ single crystal. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [52]. (e) Images of perovskite single crystals of MAPbBr₃ (left top), c-MAPbI₃ (right top), Cs₂AgBiBr₆ (left bottom) and (NH₃)₄Bi₂I₉ (right bottom). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [16–18, 53]. (f) Schematic representation of the ITC apparatus in which the crystallization vial is immersed within a heating bath. The solution is heated from room temperature and kept at an elevated temperature (80 °C for MAPbBr₃ and 110 °C for MAPbI₃) to initiate the crystallization. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [54]. (g) Schematic of layer stacking of the MAPbI₃-based PIN photodiode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]. (h) Illustration of an all-solution-processed digital X-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. (i) Device stack of the MAPbI₃-wafer-based X-ray detector. Inset: Free-standing MAPbI₃ wafer (thickness: 1 mm). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55]. (j) Preparation scheme for a thick CsPbBr₃ film using the four-step hot-pressing method. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56].

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Fig. 3.  (Color online) (a) X-ray image of resolution test chart. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [42]. (b) An edge X-ray image used for calculation of MTF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [76]. (c) A simplified schematic diagram of the cross section of a single pixel with a TFT. The charges generated by the absorption of X-rays drift towards their respective electrodes. The TFT is normally off and is turned on when the gate G₁ is addressed. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11]. (d) Idealized MTF and MTF due to trapping. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [25].

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Fig. 4.  (Color online) (a) Left: Anrad’s mammographic FPXI (AXS-2430) is used in mammography markets. The field of view is 24 × 30 cm² and the FPXI have a pixel pitch of 85 μm. Right: an X-ray image of a hand from AXS-2430. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11]. (b) Photograph (left) and corresponding X-ray image (right) of a leaf, obtained with the photoconductor in Ref. [20]. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]. (c) Left: image of spin-cast PI-MAPbI₃ on an a-Si:H TFT backplane. The inset in the left shows a single-pixel structure of TFT (scale bar 30 μm). Right: A hand X-ray image obtained from this MAPbI₃ FPXI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. (d) Left: The fabricated multi-pixel wafer-based Cs₂AgBiBr₆ polycrystalline detector. Right top: schematic illustration of the imaging process. Right bottom: X-ray image and optical image of ‘HUST’ symbol. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [18]. (e) Photograph of Si-integrated MAPbBr₃ single crystal with a 10 g weight attached to the MAPbBr₃ crystal. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [19]. (f) Left: schematic illustration of X-ray imaging with Si-integrated MAPbBr₃ single crystal detectors. Right: photo (top) and X-ray image (bottom) of an ‘N’ copper logo. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [19]. (g) Top: photo of the PIN array. Bottom: object photo (left) and X-ray image (right) for 100 keV energy. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [59].

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Table 1.   Performances and parameters of part of conventional and perovskite X-ray direct detectors. In “status” column, A is amorphous, S is single-crystal and P is polycrystalline.

Material	Linear absorption coefficients to 50 keV (cm?1)	W± (eV)	μτ (cm2 V?1)		F (V/cm)	Sensitivity (μC/(Gy·cm2))	Lowest detectable dose rate (nGyair/s)	Status (A, P or S)	Ref.
			μeτe	μhτh
Si	1.022	3.62	> 1	~ 1	0.5	8	< 8300	S	[30-32, 71]
CZT	60.63	~ 4.6	10?3 – 10?2	10?5	0.1?1	318	50	S	[32, 34, 72, 73]
a-Se	3.864	45	3 × 10?7? 10?5	10?6– 6 × 10?5	> 104	20	?	A	[11, 21, 57]
MAPbBr3	19.41	6.03	1.2 × 10?2		0.5	80	500	S	[16]
MAPbBr3(Si)	19.41	6.03	1.39 × 10?4		~ 35	2.1 × 104	< 100	S	[19]
MAPbBr3(PIN)	19.41	6.03	—		150	2.36 × 104	?	S	[59]
MAPbI3(Cuboid)	40.61	~ 4.4	1.1 × 10?4		10	968.9	?	S	[53]
MAPbI3(GA alloyed)	< 40.61	~ 4.5	1.25 × 10?2		~ 42	2.3 × 104	16.9	S	[60]
CsPbBr3(QDs)	35.07	~ 5.9	—		1000	1450	?	S	[62]
CsPbBr3(Rb doped)	35.07	~ 5.9	7.2 × 10?4		~ 200	8.1 × 103	?	S	[63]
CsPbI3(1D)	57.06	~ 6.8	3.63 × 10?3		41.7	2.37 × 103	219	S	[64]
Cs2AgBiBr6	39.08	5.61	1.21 × 10?3, 6.3 × 10?3, 5.51 × 10?3, 1.94 × 10?3, —, 5.95 × 10?3		33, 250, 5000, 227, 500, 500	4.2, 105, 250, 288.8, 988,1974	?	S/P	[17, 18, 63, 66-68]
(NH4)3Bi2I9	46.98	5.47	1.1 × 10?2//, 4 × 10?3⊥		50	8.2 × 103//, 803⊥	55	S	[18]
(DMEDA)BiI5	~ 40	5.15	—		4940	72.5	?	S	[69]
MAPbI3(PV)	40.61	~ 4.4	2 × 10?7		~ 8000	1.75	?	P	[20]
MAPbI3(Flat detector)	40.61	~ 4.4	1 × 10?4		~ 2410	3.8 × 103	?	P	[21]
MAPbI3(Wafer)	40.61	~ 4.4	2 × 10?4		5700	2.527 × 103	?	P	[55]
CsPbBr3(Hot-pressed)	35.07	~ 6	1.32 × 10?2		50	5.5684 × 104	215	P	[56]
MA3Bi2I9	~40	5.39	1.2 × 10?3 (out-of-plane), 2.8 × 10?3 (in plane)		120	10 620 (out-of-plane)	5.3	S	[74]

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Article Navigation >  Journal of Semiconductors  > 2020  >  41(5): 051204

Yirong Su, Wenbo Ma, Yang (Michael) Yang. Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204 ****Y R Su, W B Ma, Y Yang, Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. J. Semicond., 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204.

Citation:

Yirong Su, Wenbo Ma, Yang (Michael) Yang. Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204 **** Y R Su, W B Ma, Y Yang, Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. J. Semicond., 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204.

Yirong Su, Wenbo Ma, Yang (Michael) Yang. Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204 ****Y R Su, W B Ma, Y Yang, Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. J. Semicond., 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204.

Citation:

Yirong Su, Wenbo Ma, Yang (Michael) Yang. Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. Journal of Semiconductors, 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204 **** Y R Su, W B Ma, Y Yang, Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging[J]. J. Semicond., 2020, 41(5): 051204. doi: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204.

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Perovskite semiconductors for direct X-ray detection and imaging

DOI: 10.1088/1674-4926/41/5/051204

• Yirong Su^?, 
• Wenbo Ma^?, 
• Yang (Michael) Yang

• State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China

More Information

• Yirong Su：? These authors contributed equally to this work
• Wenbo Ma：? Those authors contribute equally to this work
• Corresponding author: yangyang15@zju.edu.cn
• Received Date: 2020-03-19
  
• Revised Date: 2020-04-27
• Published Date: 2020-05-01

Abstract

• Abstract

  Halide perovskites have emerged as the next generation of optoelectronic materials and their remarkable performances have been attractive in the fields of solar cells, light-emitting diodes, photodetectors, etc. In addition, halide perovskites have been reported as an attractive new class of X-ray direct detecting materials recently, owning to the strong X-ray stopping capacity, excellent carrier transport, high sensitivity, and cost-effective manufacturing. Meanwhile, perovskite based direct X-ray imagers have been successfully demonstrated as well. In this review article, we firstly introduced some fundamental principles of direct X-ray detection and imaging, and summarized the advances of perovskite materials for these purposes and finally put forward some needful and feasible directions.

   

  Keywords:
  • halide perovskites, 
  • X-ray detection, 
  • optoelectronic materials
FullText(HTML)
References(80)

• References

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• Fig. 1. (Color online) (a) Spectrum region of X-ray to wavelength and photon energy. (b) Thomson scattering from an atom. An X-ray with a wave vector k scatters from an atom to the direction specified by k’. The scattering is assumed to be elastic. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [6]. (c) Compton scattering. A photon with energy $ {\varepsilon}=\hbar ck $ and momentum $\hbar {k}$ scatters from an electron at rest with energy mc². The electron recoils with a momentum $\hbar {q'} = \hbar \left( {{k} - {k'}} \right)$. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [6]. (d) Schematic diagram of photoelectric absorption process. An X-ray photon is absorbed and an electron ejected from the atom. The hole created in the inner shell (k) can be filled by Fluorescent X-ray emission. Electrons in an outer shell fill the hole, creating a photon. In this diagram the outer electron comes either from the L or M shell. In the former case the fluorescent radiation is referred to as the K_α line, and in the latter as K_β line.
• Fig. 2. (Color online) (a) Working Principle of ion chamber. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [22]. (b) Semiconductor X-ray detectors’ two types of work modes: current mode and voltage mode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23]. (c) The linear absorption coefficients of different kinds of perovskite and conventional X-ray detectors. (d) Images of a piece of MAPbI₃ single crystal. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [52]. (e) Images of perovskite single crystals of MAPbBr₃ (left top), c-MAPbI₃ (right top), Cs₂AgBiBr₆ (left bottom) and (NH₃)₄Bi₂I₉ (right bottom). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [16–18, 53]. (f) Schematic representation of the ITC apparatus in which the crystallization vial is immersed within a heating bath. The solution is heated from room temperature and kept at an elevated temperature (80 °C for MAPbBr₃ and 110 °C for MAPbI₃) to initiate the crystallization. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [54]. (g) Schematic of layer stacking of the MAPbI₃-based PIN photodiode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]. (h) Illustration of an all-solution-processed digital X-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. (i) Device stack of the MAPbI₃-wafer-based X-ray detector. Inset: Free-standing MAPbI₃ wafer (thickness: 1 mm). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55]. (j) Preparation scheme for a thick CsPbBr₃ film using the four-step hot-pressing method. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56].
• Fig. 3. (Color online) (a) X-ray image of resolution test chart. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [42]. (b) An edge X-ray image used for calculation of MTF. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [76]. (c) A simplified schematic diagram of the cross section of a single pixel with a TFT. The charges generated by the absorption of X-rays drift towards their respective electrodes. The TFT is normally off and is turned on when the gate G₁ is addressed. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11]. (d) Idealized MTF and MTF due to trapping. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [25].
• Fig. 4. (Color online) (a) Left: Anrad’s mammographic FPXI (AXS-2430) is used in mammography markets. The field of view is 24 × 30 cm² and the FPXI have a pixel pitch of 85 μm. Right: an X-ray image of a hand from AXS-2430. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11]. (b) Photograph (left) and corresponding X-ray image (right) of a leaf, obtained with the photoconductor in Ref. [20]. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]. (c) Left: image of spin-cast PI-MAPbI₃ on an a-Si:H TFT backplane. The inset in the left shows a single-pixel structure of TFT (scale bar 30 μm). Right: A hand X-ray image obtained from this MAPbI₃ FPXI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21]. (d) Left: The fabricated multi-pixel wafer-based Cs₂AgBiBr₆ polycrystalline detector. Right top: schematic illustration of the imaging process. Right bottom: X-ray image and optical image of ‘HUST’ symbol. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [18]. (e) Photograph of Si-integrated MAPbBr₃ single crystal with a 10 g weight attached to the MAPbBr₃ crystal. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [19]. (f) Left: schematic illustration of X-ray imaging with Si-integrated MAPbBr₃ single crystal detectors. Right: photo (top) and X-ray image (bottom) of an ‘N’ copper logo. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [19]. (g) Top: photo of the PIN array. Bottom: object photo (left) and X-ray image (right) for 100 keV energy. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [59].